The demographic profile of Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) also known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG) in Odisha between 1961 and 2011 reflects a pattern shaped by small population bases, statistical aggregation, and uneven development across communities. Identified as the most vulnerable among Scheduled Tribes following the recommendations of the Dhebar Commission (1961), these groups are characterized by isolation, low literacy, and subsistence-based livelihoods. Out of the 75 PTGs in India, Odisha accounts for 13 groups, including Birhor, Bondo, Didayi, Juang, Saora, and Mankirdia, identified in phases from the Fifth to the Eighth Five-Year Plans.
A major limitation in analysing PTG demography is the absence of disaggregated Census data. Several PTGs are not enumerated separately but are clubbed with larger tribes such as Khond, Bhuiya, and Saora. This limits strict comparability across decades and obscures precise population estimates. For instance, Kutia Kandha and Dongria Kandha are subsumed within the Khond category, while Paudi Bhuyan is included under Bhuiya. Despite these constraints, consistent patterns emerge across key indicators such as population size, growth rates, sex ratios, literacy, work participation, and spatial distribution.
In terms of population size, Khond and Bhuiya consistently dominate across all census years from 1961 to 2011. This numerical strength is partly a result of aggregation, yet their scale remains significant. District-level data from 2011 illustrate this clearly: Khond populations reached 385,437 in Rayagada and 366,784 in Kandhamal, while Bhuiya populations stood at 104,049 in Kendujhar and 90,138 in Sundargarh. In contrast, smaller PTGs remain numerically fragile. Birhor populations were as low as 273 in Sambalpur and 77 in Sundargarh, while Mankirdia recorded 702 in Mayurbhanj and 313 in Debagarh. Mankirdia had the lowest population in 1961, and Birhor remained the smallest in most subsequent censuses. Such small population bases make their demographic indicators highly sensitive to minor numerical changes.
Population growth rates among PTGs show no uniform trend and are marked by sharp inter-decadal fluctuations. Birhor experienced a steep decline of 64.10 per cent during 1961–71, followed by further declines of 14.91 per cent between 1991–2001 and 15.10 per cent between 2001–2011. Bhunjia recorded a negative growth of 33.26 per cent in 2001–11, while Didayi declined by 8.60 per cent in 1971–81 and Mankirdia by 29.58 per cent in 1991–2001. These declines are counterbalanced by episodes of unusually high growth. Saora recorded an increase of 564.12 per cent during 1961–71, Birhor showed a sharp rebound of 480.99 per cent during 1981–91, Bhunjia grew by 64.10 per cent during 1991–2001, and Mankirdia by 111.62 per cent during 2001–11. The overall range, from minus 64 per cent to plus 564 per cent reflects demographic instability driven by small base populations, migration, and enumeration inconsistencies rather than steady growth.
Sex ratio patterns among PTGs reveal a generally favourable balance, with females often outnumbering males. In 1961, Bhunjia recorded a sex ratio of 1078 females per 1000 males, while Birhor recorded a low of 717. This divergence persisted across decades, with Bhunjia and Bondo Poraja frequently reporting ratios above 1100. By 2011, Bondo Poraja recorded a sex ratio of 1158, one of the highest among all groups, while Didayi recorded 1096 in 2001. In contrast, Birhor and Mankirdia consistently recorded lower ratios, though both showed gradual improvement over time, reaching around 919 and 942 respectively in later censuses. By 2011, ten PTGs had sex ratios exceeding 1000, indicating a strong female presence in most communities despite persistent imbalance in smaller groups.
The proportion of child population in the 0–6 age group shows a declining trend between 1991 and 2011 for several tribes, including Bhuiya, Lodha, Bhunjia, Juang, Kharia, and Saora. This suggests declining fertility or an increasing share of adult population. In contrast, Didayi and Mankirdia show an increasing proportion of children, indicating higher fertility or improved child survival. Other tribes display fluctuating patterns, reinforcing the absence of a uniform demographic transition across PTGs.
Child sex ratio trends present a more concerning picture, with a general decline over time. In 1991, most PTGs recorded child sex ratios above 1000, indicating more female children than male. By 2001, only Juang maintained this level, while Mankirdia recorded a sharp decline to 744, the lowest observed value. In 2011, only three tribes i.e., Birhor (1098), Bondo Poraja (1048), and Bhuiya (1002) remained above parity, while Mankirdia stood at 918. Declining child sex ratios are observed among Bhunjia, Juang, Kharia, Khond, and Saora, indicating emerging gender imbalance in younger cohorts despite favourable overall sex ratios.
Literacy levels among PTGs improved significantly between 1991 and 2011, though disparities remain pronounced. In 1991, literacy ranged from a high of 35.37 per cent among Bhuiya to as low as 4.20 per cent among Bondo, with Mankirdia (6.08 per cent) and Didayi (6.22 per cent) also below 10 per cent. By 2001, Bhuiya’s literacy increased to 50.88 per cent, while Mankirdia remained the lowest at 5.56 per cent. By 2011, all PTGs crossed the 20 per cent threshold, with Bhuiya reaching 63.14 per cent and Mankirdia improving to 21.14 per cent. Except for a temporary decline in Mankirdia between 1991 and 2001, all tribes show steady improvement. However, the gap between the highest and lowest literacy rates remains over 40 percentage points, indicating persistent inequality in educational access.
Work participation rates among PTGs show no consistent trend and fluctuate across decades. In 1961, Birhor recorded the highest work participation rate at 67.40 per cent, while Lodha recorded the lowest at 46.12 per cent. In 1971, Mankirdia recorded the highest rate at 45.32 per cent and Lodha the lowest at 23.77 per cent. In subsequent decades, Mankirdia and Bondo frequently appear among the highest, while Lodha and Didayi often record lower participation rates. By 2011, Bhunjia recorded the highest work participation rate at 57.49 per cent, while Bhuiya recorded the lowest at 47.97 per cent. These fluctuations are influenced by definitional changes in census categories and the predominance of subsistence livelihoods.
Territorially, PTGs are unevenly distributed across Odisha, with clear regional concentrations. Khond populations are concentrated in Rayagada and Kandhamal, while Bhuiya populations are highest in Kendujhar and Sundargarh. Saora populations are concentrated in Gajapati (148,927) and Bargarh (106,465), and Kharia in Sundargarh (141,271) and Sambalpur (27,428). Juang are primarily found in Kendujhar (26,707) and Dhenkanal (17,484), while Bondo (11,574) and Didayi (8,735) are concentrated in Malkangiri. Bhunjia are mainly located in Nuapada (8,968), Lodha and Mankirdia in Mayurbhanj, and Birhor in Sambalpur and Sundargarh. Four tribes namely, Bhuiya, Kharia, Khond, and Saora are distributed across most districts, while smaller PTGs remain geographically isolated.
Overall, the demographic evidence from 1961 to 2011 indicates that PTGs in Odisha do not follow a uniform trajectory of change. Population growth is irregular, ranging from steep decline to extreme expansion; sex ratios are generally favourable but child sex ratios are declining; literacy has improved but remains uneven; and work participation fluctuates without a clear trend. The coexistence of large, widely distributed tribes and small, localized groups highlights deep structural disparities.
These patterns underscore the need for disaggregated, tribe-specific policy interventions. Aggregated statistics mask the extent of inequality within PTGs, and uniform approaches do not address the distinct demographic realities of smaller groups. A data-driven, differentiated strategy is therefore essential to ensure that the most vulnerable communities catch up the development process.
Dr. Bishnupada Sethi
The author is the Chaiman of OFDC and Chief Administrator of KBK districts of Odisha.
