While many developed nations struggle to trace a significant civilizational past stretching back few centuries, Odisha possesses an unbroken cultural tradition and easily observable historical legacy spanning more than three thousand years. It would be a grave injustice to pass by its ancient monuments and historical sites without understanding the richness of this heritage. In this connection, the history of Buddhism here is far more than a chronicle of monasteries and archaeological ruins. It is the inspiring saga of monks, philosophers, logicians, tantric masters, and spiritual visionaries who carried the Buddha’s message of compassion, wisdom, non-violence, and profound insight from ancient Kalinga to distant corners of Asia. For nearly fifteen centuries from the 3rd century BCE to around the 13th century CE, Odisha emerged as one of the most vibrant and influential centres of Buddhist scholarship, practice, and innovation in the Indian subcontinent. Its monasteries rivalled Nalanda and Vikramashila, while its masters shaped Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions that profoundly influenced philosophy, logic, art, and culture across Tibet, China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia.
The pivotal moment arrived after the Kalinga War in 261 BCE. The devastating conflict moved Emperor Ashoka to embrace Buddhism, renounce violence, and champion the Dharma. His rock edicts at Dhauli near Bhubaneswar remain powerful symbols of this transformation and of a ruler’s commitment to ethical governance. Under Mauryan patronage and later royal support, Kalinga evolved into a thriving centre of monastic life. Merchant communities and strategic ports played crucial roles, enabling the export of ideas, scriptures, and artistic styles alongside trade goods to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Java, Sumatra, and Bali.
Buddhism’s roots in the region run even deeper. Buddhist texts identify the merchant brothers Tapassu and Bhallika from Ukkala (ancient Odisha) as two of the Buddha’s earliest lay disciples. They offered honey and rice cakes to the newly enlightened teacher and received hair relics in return, which they enshrined upon returning home. Another early connection involves the sacred tooth relic. After the Buddha’s cremation at Kushinagar, Bhikshu Khemathera brought it to Dantapura, Kalinga’s ancient capital. This relic later journeyed to Sri Lanka with Princess Hemamala and Prince Danta Kumar, forging enduring spiritual ties between the regions.
Diverse Buddhist schools found fertile ground in Odisha. The Mahasanghika tradition gained strength through Acharya Mahadeva, while Sarvastivada flourished thanks to figures like Bhikshu Dhitik Kumar, his disciple Kalanka, and Acharya Posadha. Ashoka’s younger brother Tissa reportedly received a monastery at Bhojakagiri near Delanga, aiding the spread of Theravada teachings. Acharya Sarvagami, linked to Suravagiri near Dhauli, worked to disseminate the Dharma among local populations and strengthen monastic institutions in the early centuries CE.
By the 4th to 7th centuries CE, Odisha had become a major seat of higher learning. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang, visiting around 639 CE, described a flourishing landscape with about 100 monasteries and nearly 10,000 Mahayana monks. Scholars identify parts of the Diamond Triangle i.e., Lalitagiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri in the Assia hills of Jajpur and Cuttack districts with the renowned Pushpagiri Mahavihara, a centre often compared to Nalanda. These sites, now on India’s tentative UNESCO World Heritage list, reveal a remarkable continuity spanning Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana phases. Excavations have uncovered grand stupas, multi-storeyed viharas, prayer halls, and exquisite sculptures of deities including Tara, Avalokiteshvara, and Manjushri, along with tantric imagery. Lalitagiri yielded nested relic caskets containing bone fragments believed to be those of the Buddha and possibly his chief disciples Sariputta and Mahamoggallana, a discovery that elevated its status as a major pilgrimage site.
Among the towering intellectuals associated with Odisha is Nagarjuna (c. 150–250 CE), revered as the “Second Buddha” and founder of the Madhyamaka school. Local traditions place him at Parimalagiri in the Gandhamardan hills. His doctrine of Sunyata (emptiness) and the Middle Way offered a profound philosophical synthesis, rejecting both eternalism and nihilism while emphasising interdependence. Works like the Mulamadhyamakakarika became foundational to Mahayana thought across Asia. His disciple Aryadeva, a native of Singhapura in Kalinga, advanced these teachings through texts such as the Chatuḥsataka and is said to have led the Parimalagiri establishment.
The tradition of rigorous analysis continued with Dignaga (c. 480–540 CE), often called the father of Buddhist logic and epistemology, linked to Bhorasaila Vihara in the Puri region. His Pramaṇa Samuccaya systematised valid means of knowledge, particularly perception and inference, bringing unprecedented precision to philosophical discourse. This work influenced not only later Buddhist thinkers like Dharmakirti but also Hindu Nyaya traditions. Dignaga’s disciple Vadra Palita is credited with establishing 16 monasteries across Kalinga, expanding the institutional base.
Odisha’s most distinctive contribution came in the realm of Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism, which flourished particularly during the Bhaumakara period. King Indrabhuti of Sambalpur (c. 8th century) is celebrated in Tibetan traditions as a Mahasiddha who composed texts like the Jnanasiddhi and pioneered Sahajayana, a path stressing spontaneous realisation of innate wisdom. His sister Lakshmikara emerged as an accomplished siddha in her own right. Acharya Pitopada of Ratnagiri introduced Kalachakrayana elements, while monks like Bodhisi practised advanced yoga at these centres.
The most iconic figure tied to this lineage is Padmasambhava, known as Guru Rinpoche or the “Lotus-Born.” Many traditions identify his birthplace with Oddiyana or Uddiyana in the ancient Kalinga/ Sambalpur area. In the 8th century, at the invitation of Tibetan King Trisong Detsen, he journeyed to Tibet, subdued local spirits, established Samye Monastery, translated scriptures, and founded the Nyingma school. By integrating Buddhist philosophy with tantric practices and indigenous Bon elements, he ensured the Dharma’s deep cultural resonance. His legacy endures across the Himalayan world, with events like the Guru Padmasambhava Monlam at Udayagiri maintaining living connections.
Other notable scholars further enhanced Odisha’s reputation. Rahula, from the region, rose to become chancellor of Nalanda University in the 9th century. Under King Sivakaradeva-I, monk Prajna carried the Gandavyuha manuscript from Ratnagiri to the Chinese emperor, underscoring the international stature of these institutions. The 84 Mahasiddhas of Buddhist lore include several with strong Odisha links, such as Sarahapada, Luipada, Kambalapada, and Kannhupada, whose mystical poetry, meditation techniques, and tantric insights enriched practices in Tibet and beyond.
These monasteries were vibrant cosmopolitan centres. Monks served as philosophers, logicians, physicians, grammarians, debaters, and cultural ambassadors. Maritime networks facilitated the flow of people and ideas, while artistic influences from Odisha shaped temple architecture and iconography across Southeast Asia. The Diamond Triangle sites, with their jewelled stupas and sophisticated sculptures, exemplify the fusion of intellectual depth and aesthetic excellence.
Buddhism in Odisha began to wane after the 12th century amid shifting patronage, invasions, and the resurgence of devotional Hinduism. Many sites were abandoned, yet Buddhist elements subtly merged into local traditions, including aspects of Jagannath worship. The intellectual and spiritual legacy persisted through folklore, rituals, and artistic motifs.
Today, the archaeological treasures of the Diamond Triangle, Dhauli, Gandhamardan, and associated sites invite renewed appreciation. They remind us that Odisha’s monks were not merely ascetics but visionary thinkers who refined concepts of emptiness, logic, and ethical living; tantric masters who developed transformative practices; and bridge-builders who connected distant civilisations. In an era still grappling with conflict and materialism, their emphasis on compassion, interdependence, and wisdom offers timeless relevance.
Odisha’s Buddhist heritage represents far more than regional history. It constitutes a luminous chapter in Asia’s shared civilisational story, one that enriched philosophy, expanded worldviews, and fostered cross-cultural dialogue. Greater global recognition of this legacy is long overdue, as these ancient monasteries and their remarkable inhabitants continue to illuminate paths toward understanding and harmony.
Dr. Bishnupada Sethi
The author is the Chairman of OFDC and Chief Administrator of KBK districts of Odisha.
