Much before Portuguese or the British East India Company transformed the Indian Ocean into a colonial highway through movement of goods in ships, the ancient kingdom of Kalinga, commanded one of Asia’s most formidable maritime traditions. Stretching along the Bay of Bengal from the Ganges delta to the Godavari estuary, then about 600 kilometres, Kalinga was a formidable coastal territory. Its sailors, called in Sanskrit literature as Kalinga Sahasika, the daring ones, turned the eastern seas into what some foreign chroniclers described as the “Kalinga Sea” through sheer dominance and control. From at least the 4th century BCE onward, Kalingan merchants, shipbuilders and migrants created a vast network of commerce and cultural exchange extending to Sri Lanka, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Bali, China and even the Roman world, what looks beyond imagination today. The Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela, Geography by Claudius Ptolemy, Arthashastra attributed to Kautilya, the Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamsa, accounts of Chinese pilgrims and an expanding body of archaeological evidence such as pottery, coins and ship carvings discovered along Odisha’s coastline provide much needed clues to the historians to reconstruct this remarkable maritime past.
Kalinga’s geographical advantages were central to its maritime success. Major rivers like the Mahanadi, Brahmani and Subarnarekha linked the fertile hinterland to the sea, allowing goods to move efficiently toward coastal ports. The deltaic landscape, with its lagoons and sandbars, provided natural harbours that were both sheltered and strategically located. Among these, Chilika Lake stood out as a major maritime hub. Ancient texts describe it as a vast and secure anchorage capable of accommodating thousands of vessels. From its southern outlet near Palur, identified by Ptolemy as Paloura, ships set sail toward Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. Excavations at Palur have revealed several evidence of sustained settlement, confirming its importance as an emporium. Nearby Manikapatna has yielded Chinese celadon, porcelain and imported beads, pointing to active trade links with East Asia. Further south, Pithunda in present-day Andhra Pradesh shows connections with Champa in Vietnam. Other ports, including Puri, referred to as Nanigaina, Konark, known as Kannagara, Kalingapatnam and several riverine outlets along the Mahanadi, appear in Ptolemy’s accounts and later Arab Persian records. Together, these ports formed a coordinated network for maritime trade.
Commerce was the driving force behind this maritime system. Kalinga exported elephants, ivory, fine cotton textiles, muslin, silk, spices, diamonds from Sambalpur, conch shells, indigo and forest products. Its diamonds reached markets in Persia, Egypt and Greece, while elephants were highly valued in Sri Lanka. Textiles and precious stones were traded extensively with China. In exchange, Kalinga imported Chinese silk and porcelain, Roman glassware and coins, Arab incense and high quality steel, as well as sandalwood from Southeast Asia.
Archaeological discoveries reinforce this picture of vibrant trade. Roman coins bearing the images of Augustus and Tiberius have been found in Odisha. Satavahana coins depicting ships, along with Northern Black Polished Ware and Southeast Asian beads, indicate both the scale and reach of maritime exchanges. By the early centuries of the Common Era, Kalingan ships navigated both coastal routes, and deeper sea routes, using the northeast monsoon winds for outward journeys and the southwest monsoon for their return.
These voyages required sophisticated vessels. Large ships were capable of carrying hundreds of passengers along with cargo that included elephants. Some accounts suggest that these ships were copper sheathed and equipped with advanced mechanical features. Texts such as the Yukti Kalpataru classified vessels according to size and function, reflecting a well-developed maritime science. Artistic depictions in temples like Konark Sun Temple, Lingaraj Temple and Jagannath Temple portray multi masted ships with sails and rigging. Some carvings even depict exotic animals such as giraffes, suggesting possible contacts with Africa.
Yet Kalinga’s maritime enterprise was not limited to commerce. Its sailors and settlers played a crucial role in cultural exchange across the Bay of Bengal. Between the 1st and 10th centuries CE, waves of migration carried Indian religion, language, art and governance to Southeast Asia. Dynasties such as the Sailodbhavas are believed to have influenced the emergence of the Sailendra kingdom in Java. Inscriptions across Southeast Asia refer to “Kling” people, widely interpreted as Kalingans, who settled in regions like Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula, forming what came to be known as Brihat Kalinga. Religious ideas travelled alongside traders. Both Buddhism and Hinduism spread across these maritime routes. The Mahavamsa records the transfer of the Buddha’s sacred tooth relic from Kalinga to Sri Lanka, where it remains enshrined in Kandy. The legendary Prince Vijaya, considered the founder of the Sinhalese kingdom, is also said to have roots in Kalinga.
In Bali, cultural continuities remain striking even today. Rituals, agricultural practices centred on rice, temple architecture and linguistic traces all echo traditions from Odisha. Festivals resembling the Jagannath Rath Yatra can still be observed. Chinese accounts refer to “Kun Lun” sailors, possibly Kalingans, who navigated from eastern Indian ports to Southeast Asia as early as the 1st century CE. Artistic similarities between Buddhist sites like Ratnagiri and Lalitagiri in Odisha and Borobudur in Indonesia further suggest deep cultural connections. Merchant guilds, known as banigrama, acted as conduits not only for goods but also for ideas and institutions.
This maritime civilisation relied on advanced knowledge of navigation. Kalingan sailors mastered the patterns of monsoon winds, ocean currents and seasonal changes long before the widespread use of the compass. To enhance safety during storms, smaller boats were often lashed to larger vessels. Religious practices also played an important role in seafaring life. Sailors invoked deities such as Varuna, Lakshmi and local goddesses like Kalijai for protection against cyclones and piracy.
These traditions survive in Odisha’s cultural practices. Festivals such as Boita Bandana during Kartika Purnima, when miniature boats are floated in rivers, and the grand Bali Jatra in Cuttack commemorate the voyages of ancient mariners. They serve as living reminders of a time when Odisha’s ships sailed across distant seas.
Despite its remarkable achievements, Kalinga’s maritime prominence eventually declined. After reaching its peak under dynasties like the Bhaumakaras, several factors contributed to its downturn. Political fragmentation weakened central authority. The Chola incursions of the 11th century disrupted established trade routes. The increasing dominance of Arab traders in the western Indian Ocean altered global trade dynamics. Environmental changes such as sedimentation, shifting river courses and coastal erosion led to the silting of key harbours. Ports like Palur and Konark gradually moved inland, while others disappeared altogether.
Additional pressures came from piracy, particularly by Arakanese raiders and later Portuguese adventurers, who targeted merchant vessels. During the medieval period, maritime activity shifted northward to ports such as Balasore, Pipili (Subarnarekha mouth) and Harishpur. These centres experienced a brief revival under European trading companies in the 17th century, though they never matched the earlier scale of Kalinga’s maritime network.
The archaeological research, especially underwater exploration near Chilika and other ancient sites, continues to shed light on this forgotten past. Scholars have demonstrated that Kalinga’s ports were not merely centres of trade but dynamic spaces of cultural interaction. The mariners of Kalinga carried not only goods such as rice, textiles and precious stones but also ideas, beliefs and artistic traditions that shaped societies across Asia. The Bay of Bengal, once described as a Kalingan lake, still bears silent witness to this legacy. Its waves echo with the memory of ships that sailed far beyond the horizon, leaving behind a cultural imprint that endures from Sri Lanka to Bali.
Dr. Bishnupada Sethi
Dr. Sethi serves as the Chaiman of OFDC and Chief Administrator of KBK districts of Odisha.
